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The Medes, by the 6th century BC, had built a large empire (see Medes). They ruled the Persians to the east and the Assyrians to the west. In 550 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered the Medes, then pushed on to further conquests. His warriors, both Medes and Persians, were fine horsemen, skilled with bow and arrow. They relied upon speed and sharp attack. Before heavily armored enemy troops could come close, the Persians overwhelmed them with arrows.
By conquering the Medes, King Cyrus acquired Assyria, which the Median King Cyarxes had taken in about 612 BC. Next Cyrus conquered Lydia, ruled by King Croesus (see Croesus). This victory gave him possession of the Greek seaboard cities of Asia Minor. In 539 BC proud Babylon, capital of the Chaldean Empire, surrendered without a fight. With Babylon Cyrus acquired Palestine. He allowed the Jews to return from Babylonian exile and rebuild their temple in Jerusalem. Turning eastward he spread his empire to the border of India. He was killed fighting against eastern nomads in 529 BC and was buried in a tomb he had prepared at his capital, Pasargadae. The ruins still remain. Cyrus' son Cambyses II, who ruled from 529 to 522 BC, successfully crossed the hostile Sinai Peninsula on his way to conquering Egypt in a short campaign.
Darius, a relative of Cambyses, seized the crown in 522 BC (see Darius I). Under him the empire flourished. Darius' greatest work was perfecting the system of government begun by Cyrus. The empire was divided into 20 satrapies, or provinces, each ruled over by a satrap. Officials called the king's eyes made regular visits to the satrapies and reported to the king. The satrapies furnished soldiers for the king's armies. Phoenicia, Egypt, and the Greek colonies of Asia Minor also supplied ships and sailors. Each satrap paid a fixed yearly tribute to Darius the Great.
Enormous wealth flowed into the royal treasure houses of Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Ecbatana. When the king required money, he minted gold coins. To encourage commerce Darius standardized coins, weights, and measures; built imperial highways; and completed a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea. He demanded strict enforcement of the severe "laws of the Medes and Persians, which altereth not."
Throughout his reign Darius was forced to suppress revolts in the empire. In 500 BC the Greek cities of Asia Minor rebelled. After putting down this rebellion, Darius turned on Athens to punish it for sending aid to the rebels. Beaten in the famous battle of Marathon, he prepared another expedition but died in 486 BC before it started.
Xerxes, the son of Darius, ruled from 486 to 465 BC. He was a weak and tyrannical king who began his reign by quelling rebellions in Egypt and Babylon, then gathered a huge force to overwhelm Greece. It seemed as if the mighty empire must conquer the small, disunited Greek city-states. Yet Xerxes met disaster at Salamis and Plataea, and his great army was driven back into Asia (see Persian Wars). This defeat marked the first sign of decay in the Persian Empire. Persian history for the next 125 years was filled with conspiracies, assassinations, and the revolts of subject peoples ground down by ruinous taxation. The empire was briefly united under the bloodthirsty Artaxerxes III (originally Ochus), who ruled from about 359 to 338 BC. He killed many of his relatives and was then poisoned by his own physician. His son Arses, who succeeded him, was poisoned two years later and all his children slain.
Darius III, a weakling, was on the throne when Alexander the Great of Macedon led his powerful army into Asia (see Alexander the Great). In the decisive battle of Issus (333 BC) Alexander captured the western half of the Persian Empire. Darius fled from the battlefield. He met Alexander again at Arbela (331 BC) and fled once more. Soon afterward one of Darius' own followers murdered him. Thus the ancient line of Persian kings--the Achaemenian Dynasty--came to an end and with it the Persian Empire. Alexander marched on to Persepolis.
After Alexander's death in 323 BC one of his generals, Seleucus, seized Babylon and founded the Seleucid Dynasty. Parthia, a small kingdom in northern Persia, broke away, brought Persia under its rule, and built an empire that extended from the Bolan Pass to the Euphrates River. The Parthians were nomads noted for their splendid horses. In battle they adopted the ruse of pretending to flee, then wheeling and firing a hail of arrows on their pursuers--hence the phrase, "Parthian shot." For 300 years they held off Rome.